Silver mercury iodide thin films (Ag2HgI4) were successively deposited onto pre-cleaned glass substrates at room temperature by chemical bath deposition at different deposition times producing films of different thicknesses. The elemental composition of the as-deposited films measured by energy dispersive X-ray analysis shows the formation of stoichiometric Ag2HgI4 thin films. X-ray diffraction patterns reveal that Ag2HgI4 films are single phase of a polycrystalline structure, and have a dominant diffraction along [111] direction. The structure of the films was further investigated by transmission electron microscope verifying the polycrystalline nature of samples and nearly matching with X-ray diffraction data. The FESEM images reveal dense and well-defined grains. The optical properties of as-deposited films have been calculated from the recorded transmission and reflection data in the spectral range 400-2500nm. The analysis of the optical absorption coefficient indicates the presence of direct and indirect optical transition whose values decrease with the increase of thickness, while the values Urbach energy follow is a reverse behavior. The study of optic parameters of 558nm thick film heated at 330K was also investigated. The electrical conductivity was measured by four-probe experiment in the range from 300 to 500K. The activation energy was found to nearly equal half of the direct band gap indicating the intrinsic conduction of studied films is dominant.

Cu(In,Ga,Al)Se-2 (CIGAS) thin films were studied as an alternative absorber layer material to Cu(InxGa1-x)Se-2. CIGAS thin films with varying Al content were prepared by magnetron sputtering on Si(100) and soda-lime glass substrates at 350 degrees C, followed by postdeposition annealing at 520 degrees C for 5 h in vacuum. The film composition was measured by an electron probe micro-analyzer while the elemental depth profiles were determined by secondary ion mass spectrometry. X-ray diffraction studies indicated that CIGAS films are single phase with chalcopyrite structure and that the (112) peak clearly shifts to higher 2 theta values with increasing Al content. Scanning electron microscopy images revealed dense and well-defined grains, as well as sharp CIGAS/Si(100) interfaces for all films. Atomic force microscopy analysis indicated that the roughness of CIGAS films decreases with increasing Al content. The bandgap of CIGAS films was determined from the optical transmittance and reflectance spectra and was found to increase as Al content increased. (C) 2015 American Vacuum Society.

Cu(In,Ga,Al)Se-2 (CIGAS) thin films were investigated as an alternative absorber layer to Cu(In, Ga) Se-2 (CIGS). CIGAS thin films were prepared by pulsed laser deposition on SiO2/Si(100) and glass substrates at 150 degrees C with different Al contents. The compositions of all films were measured by electron probe micro-analyzer. X-ray diffraction studies indicate that all the films are oriented along the [112] direction and that the (112) peak shifts to higher 2 theta value with increasing Al content. Scanning electron microscopy images show that dense and well-defined grains are formed as Al is incorporated into CIGS. Atomic force microscopy images indicate that the grain sizes and the roughness of the thin films decrease with increasing Al content. The bandgap of CIGAS thin films was determined from the optical spectra and was found to increase with increasing Al content.

CuInGeSe4 thin films of various thicknesses were prepared on a glass substrate by thermal evaporation followed by selenization at 700 K. Energy dispersive X-ray analysis shows that the CuInGeSe4 thin films are near stoichiometric. The X-ray diffraction patterns indicate that the as-deposited CuInGeSe4 thin films are amorphous, while the CuInGeSe4 thin films annealed at 700 K are polycrystalline with the chalcopyrite phase. The structure of the films was further investigated by transmission electron microscopy and diffraction, with the results verifying the X-ray diffraction data. High-resolution scanning electron microscopy images show well-defined grains that are nearly similar in size. The surface roughness increases with film thickness, as confirmed by atomic force microscopy. The optical transmission and reflection spectra of the CuInGeSe4 thin films were recorded over the wavelength range of 400-2500 nm. The variation of the optical parameters of the CuInGeSe4 thin films, such as the refractive index n and the optical band gap E (g) , as a function of the film thickness was determined. The value of E (g) decreases with increasing film thickness. For the studied films, n were estimated from the Swanoepl's method and were found to increase with increasing film thickness as well as follow the two-term Cauchy dispersion relation. A heterojunction with the configuration Al/n-Si/p-CuInGeSe4/Au was fabricated. The built-in voltage and the carrier concentration of the heterojunction was determined from the capacitance-voltage measurements at 1 MHz and were found to be 0.61 V and 3.72 x 10(17) cm(-3), respectively. Under 1000 W/m(2) solar simulator illumination, the heterojunction achieved a conversion efficiency of 2.83%.

Cu(In, Ga, Al)Se-2 (CIGAS) thin films were deposited by magnetron sputtering on Si(100) and soda-lime glass substrates at different substrate temperatures, followed by post-deposition annealing at 350 or 520 A degrees C for 5 h in vacuum. Electron probe micro-analysis and secondary ion mass spectroscopy were used to determine the composition of the films and the distribution of Al across the film thickness, respectively. X-ray diffraction analysis showed that the (112) peak of CIGAS films shifts to higher 2 theta values with increasing substrate temperature but remains unchanged when the films were annealed at 520 A degrees C for 5 h. Scanning electron microscopy and atomic force microscopy images revealed dense and well-defined grains for both as-deposited and annealed films. However, notable increase in grain size and roughness was observed for films deposited at 500 A degrees C. The bandgap of CIGAS films was determined from the optical transmittance and reflectance spectra and was found to increase as the substrate temperature was increased.

In 1956, Akhtar Khan began a project in rural East Pakistan that inspired new approaches to community and organization development. A quarter century later, he replicated the developmental process in impoverished neighborhoods of Karachi. The techniques of shared decision making, building cooperatives, training the master trainers, and encouraging self-sufficiency were pivotal to the approach. The effect transformed the two communities and helped inspire microfinance. Using the lens of intentional change theory in a post hoc analysis, we explain why this approach worked. The article allows us to honor a social innovator while affirming our commitment to practices like participation to create and reinforce a shared vision, creating new resonant relationships, building a multilevel intervention with distributed leadership, inclusiveness in training for empowerment, and continuous attention to cycling through the process iteratively. These are offered as insights in the design of organization and community development efforts.