The lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-rich outer membrane (OM) is a unique feature of Gram-negative bacteria, and LPS transport across the inner membrane (IM) and through the periplasm is essential to the biogenesis and maintenance of the OM. LPS is transported across the periplasm to the outer leaflet of the OM by the LPS transport (Lpt) system, which in Escherichia coli is comprised of seven recently identified proteins, including LptA, LptC, LptDE, and LptFGB(2). Structures of the periplasmic protein LptA and the soluble portion of the membrane-associated protein LptC have been solved and show these two proteins to be highly structurally homologous with unique folds. LptA has been shown to form concentration dependent oligomers that stack end-to-end. LptA and LptC have been shown to associate in vivo and are expected to form a similar protein-protein interface to that found in the LptA dimer. In these studies, we disrupted LptA oligomerization by introducing two point mutations that removed a lysine and glutamine side chain from the C-terminal -strand of LptA. This loss of oligomerization was characterized using EPR spectroscopy techniques and the affinity of the interaction between the mutant LptA protein and WT LptC was determined using EPR spectroscopy (K-d = 15 mu M) and isothermal titration calorimetry (K-d = 14 mu M). K-d values were also measured by EPR spectroscopy for the interaction between LptC and WT LptA (4 mu M) and for WT LptA oligomerization (29 mu M). These data suggest that the affinity between LptA and LptC is stronger than the affinity for LptA oligomerization.

Site-directed spin labeling (SDSL) electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) spectroscopy has emerged as a well-established method that can provide specific information on the location and environment of an individual residue within large and complex protein structures. The SDSL technique involves introducing a cysteine residue at the site of interest and then covalently labeling with a sulfhydryl-specific spin label containing a stable free radical, which is used as the EPR-detectable probe. SDSL directly probes the local environment, structure, and proximity of individual residues, and is often greatly advantageous over techniques that give global information on protein structure and changes. SDSL can detect and follow changes in local structure due to intramolecular conformational changes or dynamic interactions with other proteins, peptides, or substrates. In addition, this technique can detect changes in distances between two sites and provide information on the depth of spin labels located within a membrane bilayer. EPR is neither limited by the size of the protein or peptide nor limited by the optical properties of the sample and has the unique ability to address and answer structure and dynamics questions that are not solvable solely by genetic or crystal structure analysis, making it highly complementary to other structural methods. In this chapter, we introduce the basic methods for using SDSL EPR spectroscopy in the study of the structure and dynamics of proteins and peptides and illustrate the practical applications of this method through specific examples in the literature.

Lysine-enriched analogs of the cecropin-mellitin hybrid peptide, CA(1-7) M2-9 (designated CM15), designed with optimized amphipathicity, retained antimicrobial activities similar to that of wild-type CM15 and had substantially reduced levels of hemolytic activity and cytotoxicity toward cultured macrophages, resulting in enhanced selectivity. These lysine-enriched analogs provide templates for improved CM15 peptide or peptidomimetic antibiotics.

Antimicrobial peptides exist ubiquitously as a host defense system in a broad range of species, including insects, amphibians, and mammals. The binding of these peptides is followed by the disruption of cytoplasmic membranes, leading to bacterial cell death; however, the precise mechanism of membrane destruction has remained controversial. In this study, we have examined the mechanism of action for the antimicrobial peptide, CM15 (KWKLFKKIGAVLKVL), a chimeric peptide of cecropin and mellitin. We find that the cytotoxicity of CM15 against either E. coli or Pseudomonas aeruginosa can be mitigated by the addition of sugar or poly(ethylene glycol) osmolytes to the extracellular media. The dependence of osmoprotection on solute size suggests the formation of pores with an effective diameter of 2.2-3.8 nm. In contrast, no osmoprotection was observed for cell killing by the cationic detergent dodecyltrimethylammonium bromide. Osmolytes also protected cells against the cytotoxicity of CM15 expressed intracellularly as a C-terminal extension of the carrier protein ketosteroid isomerase (KSI). Osmoprotection against the intracellularly produced peptide was also dependent on osmolyte size, in a manner that was in agreement with that observed for extracellularly added synthetic CM15. These data indicate that the formation of discrete pores in the cytoplasmic membrane is a key factor in the mechanism of bacterial killing by CM15.

Pseudomonas aeruginosa is an opportunistic Gram-negative pathogen that possesses a type III secretion system (T3SS) critical for evading innate immunity and establishing acute infections in compromised patients. Our research has focused on the structureactivity relationships of ExoU, the most toxic and destructive type III effector produced by P. aeruginosa. ExoU possesses phospholipase activity, which is detectable in vitro only when a eukaryotic cofactor is provided with membrane substrates. We report here that a subpopulation of ubiquitylated yeast SOD1 and other ubiquitylated mammalian proteins activate ExoU. Phospholipase activity was detected using purified ubiquitin of various chain lengths and linkage types; however, free monoubiquitin is sufficient in a genetically engineered dual expression system. The use of ubiquitin by a bacterial enzyme as an activator is unprecedented and represents a new aspect in the manipulation of the eukaryotic ubiquitin system to facilitate bacterial replication and dissemination.

The C-terminal amphipathic helix of the influenza A M2 protein plays a critical cholesterol-dependent role in viral budding. To provide atomic-level detail on the impact cholesterol has on the conformation of M2 protein, we spin-labeled sites right before and within the C-terminal amphipathic helix of the M2 protein. We studied the spin-labeled M2 proteins in membranes both with and without cholesterol. We used a multipronged site-directed spin-label electron paramagnetic resonance (SDSL-EPR) approach and collected data on line shapes, relaxation rates, accessibility of sites to the membrane, and distances between symmetry-related sites within the tetrameric protein. We demonstrate that the C-terminal amphipathic helix of M2 populates at least two conformations in POPC/POPG 4:1 bilayers. Furthermore, we show that the conformational state that becomes more populated in the presence of cholesterol is less dynamic, less membrane buried, and more tightly packed than the other state. Cholesterol-dependent changes in M2 could be attributed to the changes cholesterol induces in bilayer properties and/or direct binding of cholesterol to the protein. We propose a model consistent with all of our experimental data that suggests that the predominant conformation we observe in the presence of cholesterol is relevant for the understanding of viral budding.

ExoU is a 74-kDa, water-soluble toxin injected directly into mammalian cells through the type III secretion system of the opportunistic pathogen, Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Previous studies have shown that ExoU is a Ca(2+)-independent phospholipase that requires a eukaryotic protein cofactor. One protein capable of activating ExoU and serving as a required cofactor was identified by biochemical and proteomic methods as superoxide dismutase (SOD1). In these studies, we carried out site-directed spin-labeling electron paramagnetic resonance spectroscopy to examine the effects of SOD1 and substrate liposomes on the structure and dynamics of ExoU. Local conformational changes within the catalytic site were observed in the presence of substrate liposomes, and were enhanced by the addition of SOD1 in a concentration-dependent manner. Conformational changes in the C-terminal domain of ExoU were observed upon addition of cofactor, even in the absence of liposomes. Double electron-electron resonance experiments indicated that ExoU samples multiple conformations in the resting state. In contrast, addition of SOD1 induced ExoU to adopt a single, well-defined conformation. These studies provide, to our knowledge, the first direct evidence for cofactor- and membrane-induced conformational changes in the mechanism of activation of ExoU.

There are no easily obtainable EPR spectral parameters for lipid spin labels that describe profiles of membrane fluidity. The order parameter, which is most often used as a measure of membrane fluidity, describes the amplitude of wobbling motion of alkyl chains relative to the membrane normal and does not contain explicitly time or velocity. Thus, this parameter can be considered as nondynamic. The spin-lattice relaxation rate (T(1)(-1)) obtained from saturation-recovery EPR measurements of lipid spin labels in deoxygenated samples depends primarily on the rotational correlation time of the nitroxide moiety within the lipid bilayer. Thus, T(1)(-1) can be used as a convenient quantitative measure of membrane fluidity that reflects local membrane dynamics. T(1)(-1) profiles obtained for 1-palmitoyl-2-(n-doxylstearoyl)phosphatidylcholine (n-PC) spin labels in dimyristoylphosphatidylcholine (DMPC) membranes with and without 50 mol% cholesterol are presented in parallel with profiles of the rotational diffusion coefficient, R(perpendicular to), obtained from simulation of EPR spectra using Freed's model. These profiles are compared with profiles of the order parameter obtained directly from EPR spectra and with profiles of the order parameter obtained from simulation of EPR spectra. It is shown that T(1)(-1) and R(perpendicular to) profiles reveal changes in membrane fluidity that depend on the motional properties of the lipid alkyl chain. We find that cholesterol has a rigidifying effect only to the depth occupied by the rigid steroid ring structure and a fluidizing effect at deeper locations. These effects cannot be differentiated by profiles of the order parameter. All profiles in this study were obtained at X-band (9.5 GHz). (C) 2011 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

The influence of a variety of microenvironmental factors oil the inherent reactivity of membrane-located reagents is poorly understood. A goal of this review is to provide detailed profiles of membrane properties, including hydrophobicity, oxygen and nitric oxide solubility and diffusion rates, bilayer penetration of metal ions and metal-ion complexes, and membrane order and fluidity, that can be obtained with EPR spin-labeling methods. These properties can drastically vary with membrane composition, membrane depth, and membrane domain formation, influencing the fate of chemical reactions that occur in a lipid bilayer environment. (c) 2008 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Influenza A M2 is a membrane-associated protein with a C-terminal amphipathic helix that plays a cholesterol-dependent role in viral budding. An M2 mutant with alanine substitutions in the C-terminal amphipathic helix is deficient in viral scission. With the goal of providing atomic-level understanding of how the wild-type protein functions, we used a multipronged site-directed spin labeling electron paramagnetic resonance spectroscopy (SDSL-EPR) approach to characterize the conformational properties of the alanine mutant. We spin-labeled sites in the transmembrane (TM) domain and the C-terminal amphipathic helix (AH) of wild-type (WT) and mutant M2, and collected information on line shapes, relaxation rates, membrane topology, and distances within the homotetramer in membranes with and without cholesterol. Our results identify marked differences in the conformation and dynamics between the WT and the alanine mutant. Compared to WT, the dominant population of the mutant AH is more dynamic, shallower in the membrane, and has altered quaternary arrangement of the C-terminal domain. While the AH becomes more dynamic, the dominant population of the TM domain of the mutant is immobilized. The presence of cholesterol changes the conformation and dynamics of the WT protein, while the alanine mutant is insensitive to cholesterol. These findings provide new insight into how M2 may facilitate Budding. We propose the AH-membrane interaction modulates the arrangement of the TM helices, effectively stabilizing a conformational state that enables M2 to facilitate viral budding. Antagonizing the properties of the AH that enable interdomain coupling within M2 may. therefore present a novel strategy for anti-influenza drug design.

ExoU is a 74 kDa cytotoxin that undergoes substantial conformational changes as part of its function, that is, it has multiple thermodynamically stable conformations that interchange depending on its environment. Such flexible proteins pose unique challenges to structural biology: (1) not only is it often difficult to determine structures by X-ray crystallography for all biologically relevant conformations because of the flat energy landscape (2) but also experimental conditions can easily perturb the biologically relevant conformation. The first challenge can be overcome by applying orthogonal structural biology techniques that are capable of observing alternative, biologically relevant conformations. The second challenge can be addressed by determining the structure in the same biological state with two independent techniques under different experimental conditions. If both techniques converge to the same structural model, the confidence that an unperturbed biologically relevant conformation is observed increases. To this end, we determine the structure of the C-terminal domain of the effector protein, ExoU, from data obtained by electron paramagnetic resonance spectroscopy in conjunction with site-directed spin labeling and in silico de novo structure determination. Our protocol encompasses a multimodule approach, consisting of low-resolution topology sampling, clustering, and high-resolution refinement. The resulting model was compared with an ExoU model in complex with its chaperone SpcU obtained previously by X-ray crystallography. The two models converged to a minimal RMSD100 of 3.2 angstrom, providing evidence that the unbound structure of ExoU matches the fold observed in complex with SpcU.